RECOGNITION AND ASSESSMENT
- Use this guideline only in patients who have metabolic acidosis
- For symptoms and signs, investigations and to check you are using the correct guideline, use Hyperglycaemia: triage guideline
Definition
- Severe uncontrolled diabetes with:
- capillary ketones (≥3 mmol/L)
- metabolic acidosis (pH <7.3, HCO3 <15 mmol/L)
- usually with hyperglycaemia (blood glucose >12 mmol/L)
- Beware of normoglycaemic DKA
High-risk patients
- Severe DKA with
- capillary ketones >6 mmol/L
- venous HCO3 <5 mmol/L
- venous pH <7.1
- hypokalaemia <3.5 mmol/L on admission
- GCS <12
- SpO2 <92% on air
- systolic BP <90 mmHg
- pulse rate >100 or <60/bpm
- Anion gap >16 [anion gap = (Na+ + K+) – (Cl- + HCO3-)]
- Young patients (18–25 yr)/elderly
- Pregnant patient
- manage in critical care area and involve obstetric team
- Heart/renal failure
- Other/serious co-morbidities
Search for precipitating causes
- Sepsis (signs of shock)
- Recent myocardial infarction
- Pancreatitis
- Other causes
Investigations for causes
- Serum amylase
- MSU
- If symptoms suggest sepsis, blood culture – see blood culture guideline
- ECG
- Chest X-ray
GENERAL MANAGEMENT
- Treat cause
- Start on prophylactic LMWH unless contraindication
- If patient febrile and septic and no obvious cause can be found, see Sepsis guideline
- If patient hypotensive or comatose, or fails to pass urine within 3 hr of starting IV fluids, introduce urethral catheter to monitor urine volume
- see Urethral catheterisation guideline
- If hypotension persists beyond 6 hr, look again for evidence of sepsis, myocardial infarction or pancreatitis
- discuss further management with medical SpR
- consider transfer to critical care
- If GCS <8, request review by critical care team for endotracheal intubation and insertion of a nasogastric tube in order to aspirate stomach
- If not on critical care, admit patient to endocrinology ward
DELIVERY OF FLUID AND INSULIN
- Deliver insulin and IV fluid simultaneously
- only via a set incorporating anti-reflux valves through single cannula
- see Administration of IV insulin infusions and fluid infusions guideline
- Do not use ordinary 3-way taps
- Use IVAC pump to control IV fluid infusion rate and to alert when fluid bag needs replacing
- Never give single doses of insulin (e.g. Actrapid)
INITIAL FLUID
- Start fluid replacement before commencing insulin and then run concurrently
First hour
- If initial systolic BP <90 mmHg, give 500 mL sodium chloride 0.9% over 15 min
- if BP remains low, give repeat fluid challenge and seek senior/critical care support early
- If initial systolic BP ≥ 90 mmHg, commence sodium chloride 0.9% IV 1 L over 1 hr
At 60 min (then every 2 hours)
- Potassium (K+) review
- take Venous Blood Gas (VBG) for K+ (and pH)
Choice of fluid
- NEVER add potassium chloride to infusion bags
- Select pre-mixed bags of sodium chloride 0.9% and potassium chloride
- serum K+ ≥5.5 mmol/L, give 1L bag of sodium chloride 0.9%
- serum K+3.5–5.4 mmol/L, give 1L premixed bag of sodium chloride 0.9% with 40 mmol potassium chloride
- serum K+ <3.5 mmol/L, give two 500 mL premixed bags of sodium chloride 0.9% with 40 mmol potassium chloride - seek senior/critical care help
- Do not prescribe any potassium supplement in first litre of fluid
- addition of potassium is likely to be required in second litre of fluid
- If patient is anuric, do not give potassium
- If possible, while potassium is being infused, attach patient to cardiac monitor
- administration rate above 20 mmol/L/hr requires cardiac monitoring
- K Concentrations >40 mmol/L are painful and may cause severe phlebitis
- give via central line
- if central line cannot be inserted, administer via largest suitable peripheral vein using infusion pump
Rate after first 60 min
- Give chosen pre-mixed bags of sodium chloride 0.9% and potassium chloride
- 1 L over 2 hrs; if giving 500 mL bags, first over 1hr, next over following 1 hr; then
- 1 L over 2 hrs; if giving 500 mL bags, first over 1hr, next over following 1 hr; then
- 1 L every 4 hrs; if giving 500 mL bags, first over 2hr, next over following 2 hr; then
- continue as indicated by volume status (consider slower infusion rate in young adults as increased risk of cerebral oedema)
INITIAL INSULIN
Background subcutaneous Insulin
- Continue previously prescibed long-acting insulin [e.g. glargine (Lantus), detemir (Levemir) or deguldec (Tresiba)]
- advise nurse to administer alongside IV insulin
- If newly diagnosed diabetes, start long-acting basal insulin at 0.25 units/kg body weight once daily
- e.g. in 60kg body weight, give 15 units of basal insulin once daily
- advise nurse to administer alongside IV insulin
- If patient on subcutaneous insulin pump (CSII), discontinue pump
- contact diabetes team or consultant in charge of patient
IV insulin delivery and infusion
- Use BD micro-fine insulin hypodermic syringes to accurately dose and draw insulin
- do not use ordinary syringe
- 50 units soluble insulin (Actrapid or Humulin S) diluted to 50 mL with sodium chloride 0.9% in 50 mL syringe
- Luer-lok through a spiral or long line delivered by syringe driver pump (so each mL equates to 1 unit of insulin)
Rate
- Commence insulin infusion using standard concentration of 50 units soluble insulin/50 mL sodium chloride 0.9%
- Infuse at rate of 0.1 units/kg/hr (e.g. 60 kg– 6 units/hr). Maximum 15 units/hr
- use patient’s actual weight (if not available, ask patient/estimate weight)
MONITOR
- Maintain a strict fluid intake/output chart
- Remember: always assess patient clinically for fluid status and response to treatment
- While potassium is being infused, attach cardiac monitor to patient
- Capillary glucose hourly for 6 hr, then 2-hrly if patient stable
- Capillary ketones hourly until falls to < 0.6 mmol/L
- Lab glucose, U&E, VBG 2 hr and 4 hr; then 2–4 hrly glucose and U&E till stable
- Monitor patient for complications of over-rapid treatment:
- hypoglycaemia
- cerebral oedema (decreased conscious level +/- focal neurological deficit) in absence of hypoglycaemia
- Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS); hypoxia resistant to high FiO2 – seek critical care opinion
- Do not use flash glucose monitoring (Freestyle Libre, Dexcom G6) to guide treatment
- use in DKA/HHS is not evaluated
6–12 HR FOLLOWING ADMISSION
- Remember: always assess patient clinically for fluid status and response to treatment
- Assess for resolution (pH >7.3, capillary ketones <0.3 mmol/L)
- do not rely on HCO3- at this stage due to hyperchloraemia from large volume sodium chloride 0.9% infusion
- Treat any complications (e.g. fluid overload)
- Identify and treat any precipitating cause
Fluid Replacement
- If blood glucose falls below 14 mmol/L, commence glucose 10% at 125 mL/hr alongside sodium chloride 0.9%
- caution in elderly, CCF, renal failure
Insulin
- If capillary ketones not falling by 0.5 mmol/L/hr, increase infusion rate by 1 unit/hr until this is achieved
- always check insulin infusion pump is working
- if ketone measurement not possible, HCO3- to increase by 3 mmol/hr, blood glucose to reduce by 3 mmol/L/hr
- When blood glucose is <14 mmol/L, consider reducing insulin infusion to 0.05 units/kg/hr to avoid hypoglycaemia
- e.g. for 60kg body weight reduce insulin rate to 3 units/hr
- Continue insulin infusion until capillary ketones <0.6 mmol/L, venous pH >7.3 and/or HCO3- >18 mmol/L, then convert to SC insulin regimen
- Do not discontinue IV insulin until 30 mins after starting SC insulin regimen
CONVERSION FROM IV INSULIN
- Once patient biochemically stabilised (pH >7.3, capillary ketones <0.6 mmol/L) and able to eat and drink, convert to SC insulin regimen
Patient can’t eat/drink
- When ketones normal and acidosis resolved, convert to variable rate insulin infusion as in Hyperglycaemia: can’t eat/drink guideline
- Assess fluid requirement clinically and involve diabetes team
SC insulin
- Transition from IV to SC insulin should take place when the next meal-related SC insulin dose is due (e.g. with breakfast or lunch)
- If already on insulin, continue fixed-rate infusion for 30–60 min after SC insulin administration in conjunction with a meal
- If delay in obtaining diabetes team support, the following is guidance for insulin therapy
Previously using SC insulin dose
- Restart usual insulin
- increasing previous dose by 10–20% for first 2–3 days
Insulin naïve patients
- In patient new to insulin, insulin requirements will fall initially as resistance falls
- ensure close supervision during this period
- Caution in patients with low or high BMI as dosing requirement and insulin sensitivity may vary
- Daily insulin requirement is 0.3–0.5 units/kg
- in elderly, renal failure (CKD stage 4 &5), severe hepatic failure or newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes, use 0.3 units/kg
- all other adult patients, use 0.5 units/kg
- e.g. in a 60 kg patient, total starting dose of insulin is either 18 units or 30 units over 24 hr
- Give 50% of the total dose as long-acting analogue (glargine, detemir or degludec) SC before evening meal or before bedtime
Either
- Divide the remaining 50% into 3 equal doses of quick-acting insulin (Novorapid, Humalog or Apidra) SC
- to be given before breakfast, lunch and evening meal
Or
- If twice daily pre-mixed insulin regimen to be used – 2/3 of total dose can be given before breakfast and 1/3 before evening meal
Adjusting SC insulin regimen
- Once patient using SC insulin regimen, adjust doses to achieve target range of 6–11 mmol/L
- if using soluble insulin before breakfast, lunch and dinner, plus isophane at 2200 hr, use Table as guide to insulin adjustment, raising or lowering appropriate insulin by 2–4 units
- if patient usually using insulin analogue (e.g. lispro/aspart +/- glargine/detemir), additional isophane may be needed – discuss with diabetes team
DISCHARGE AND FOLLOW-UP
- Encourage early mobilisation
- Continue prophylactic LMWH until day of discharge (unless contraindicated)
- Check diabetes team have made appropriate follow-up arrangements or refer to diabetes team for out-patient review
- If patient new to insulin, prescribe needles for insulin pens, lancets and sharps guard
© 2022 The Bedside Clinical Guidelines Partnership.
Created by University Hospital North Midlands and Keele University School of Computing and Mathematics.
Research and development team: James Mitchell, Ed de Quincey, Charles Pantin, Naveed Mustfa